Aircraft Pressurization Systems

Pressure of the Atmosphere 

The gases of the atmosphere (air), although invisible, have weight. A one square inch column of air stretching from sea level into space weighs 14.7 pounds. Therefore, it can be stated that the pressure of the atmosphere, or atmospheric pressure, at sea level is 14.7 psi.

Atmospheric pressure is also known as barometric pressure and is measured with a barometer. Expressed in various ways, such as in inches of mercury or millimeters of mercury, these measurements come from observing the height of mercury in a column when air pressure is exerted on a reservoir of mercury into which the column is set. The column must be evacuated so air inside does not act against the mercury rising. A column of mercury 29.92 inches high weighs the same as a column of air that extends from sea level to the top of the atmosphere and has the same cross-section as the column of mercury.  

Aviators often interchange references to atmospheric pressure between linear displacement (e.g., inches of mercury) and units of force (e.g., psi). Over the years, meteorology has shifted its use of linear displacement representation of atmospheric pressure to units of force. However, the unit of force nearly universally used today to represent atmospheric pressure in meteorology is the hectopascal (hPa). A hectopascal is a metric (SI) unit that expresses force in newtons per square meter. 1,013.2 hPa is equal to 14.7 psi.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The simplest explanation for this is that the column of air that is weighed is shorter. How the pressure changes for a given altitude is shown in Figure. The decrease in pressure is a rapid one and, at 50,000 feet, the atmospheric pressure has dropped to almost one-tenth of the sea level value. 

Temperature and Altitude 

Temperature variations in the atmosphere are of concern to aviators. Weather systems produce changes in temperature near the earth’s surface. Temperature also changes as altitude is increased. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. On average, it ranges from the earth’s surface to about 38,000 feet above it. Over the poles, the troposphere extends to only 25,000–30,000 feet and, at the equator, it may extend to around 60,000 feet.

Most civilian aviation takes place in the troposphere in which temperature decreases as altitude increases. The rate of change is somewhat constant at about –2 °C or –3.5 °F for every 1,000 feet of increase in altitude. The upper boundary of the troposphere is the tropopause. It is characterized as a zone of relatively constant temperature of –57 °C or –69 °F.

Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere. Temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere to near 0 °C before decreasing again in the mesosphere, which lies above it. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer that protects the earth’s inhabitants from harmful UV rays. Some civilian flights and numerous military flights occur in the stratosphere. Figure diagrams the temperature variations in different layers of the atmosphere. 

When an aircraft is flown at high altitude, it burns less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude. This is due to decreased drag that results from the reduction in air density. Bad weather and turbulence can also be avoided by flying in the relatively smooth air above storms and convective activity that occur in the lower troposphere. To take advantage of these efficiencies, aircraft are equipped with environmental systems to overcome extreme temperature and pressure levels. While supplemental oxygen and a means of staying warm suffice, aircraft pressurization and air conditioning systems have been developed to make high altitude flight more comfortable. Figure illustrates the temperatures and pressures at various altitudes in the atmosphere. 

Pressurization Terms 

The following terms should be understood for the discussion of pressurization and cabin environmental systems that follows: 

1. Cabin altitude—given the air pressure inside the cabin, the altitude on a standard day that has the same pressure as that in the cabin. Rather than saying the pressure inside the cabin is 10.92 psi, it can be said that the cabin altitude is 8,000 feet (MSL). 

2. Cabin differential pressure—the difference between the air pressure inside the cabin and the air pressure outside the cabin. Cabin pressure (psi) – ambient pressure (psi) = cabin differential pressure (psid or Δ psi). 

3. Cabin rate of climb—the rate of change of air pressure inside the cabin, expressed in feet per minute (fpm) of cabin altitude change. 

Pressurization Issues 

Pressurizing an aircraft cabin assists in making flight possible in the hostile environment of the upper atmosphere. The degree of pressurization and the operating altitude of any aircraft are limited by critical design factors. A cabin pressurization system must accomplish several functions if it is to ensure adequate passenger comfort and safety. It must be capable of maintaining a cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8,000 feet or lower regardless of the cruising altitude of the aircraft. This is to ensure that passengers and crew have enough oxygen present at sufficient pressure to facilitate full blood saturation. A pressurization system must also be designed to prevent rapid changes of cabin pressure, which can be uncomfortable or injurious to passengers and crew. Additionally, a pressurization system should circulate air from inside the cabin to the outside at a rate that quickly eliminates odors and to remove stale air. Cabin air must also be heated or cooled on pressurized aircraft. Typically, these functions are incorporated into the pressurization source.

To pressurize, a portion of the aircraft designed to contain air at a pressure higher than outside atmospheric pressure must be sealed. A wide variety of materials facilitate this. Compressible seals around doors combine with various other seals, grommets, and sealants to essentially establish an air tight pressure vessel. This usually includes the cabin, flight compartment, and the baggage compartments. Air is then pumped into this area at a constant rate sufficient to raise the pressure slightly above that which is needed. Control is maintained by adjusting the rate at which the air is allowed to flow out of the aircraft.

A key factor in pressurization is the ability of the fuselage to withstand the forces associated with the increase in pressure inside the structure versus the ambient pressure outside. This differential pressure can range from 3.5 psi for a singleengine reciprocating aircraft, to approximately 9 psi on high performance jet aircraft. If the weight of the aircraft structure were of no concern, this would not be a problem. Making an aircraft strong for pressurization, yet also light, has been an engineering challenge met over numerous years beginning in the 1930s. The development of jet aircraft and their ability to exploit low drag flight at higher altitude made the problem even more pronounced. Today, the proliferation of composite materials in aircraft structure continues this engineering challenge.  

In addition to being strong enough to withstand the pressure differential between the air inside and the air outside the cabin, metal fatigue from repeated pressurization and depressurization weakens the airframe. Some early pressurized aircraft structures failed due to this and resulted in fatal accidents. The FAA’s aging aircraft program was instituted to increase inspection scrutiny of older airframes that may show signs of fatigue due to the pressurization cycle.

Aircraft of any size may be pressurized. Weight considerations when making the fuselage strong enough to endure pressurization usually limit pressurization to high performance light aircraft and larger aircraft. A few pressurized single-engine reciprocating aircraft exist, as well as many pressurized single-engine turboprop aircraft. 

Sources of Pressurized Air 

The source of air to pressurize an aircraft varies mainly with engine type. Reciprocating aircraft have pressurization sources different from those of turbine-powered aircraft. Note that the compression of air raises its temperature. A means for keeping pressurization air cool enough is built into most pressurization systems. It may be in the form of a heat exchanger, using cold ambient air to modify the temperature of the air from the pressurization source. A full air cycle air conditioning system with expansion turbine may also be used. The latter provides the advantage of temperature control on the ground and at low altitudes where ambient air temperature may be higher than comfortable for the passengers and crew. 

Reciprocating Engine Aircraft 

There are three typical sources of air used to pressurize reciprocating aircraft: supercharger, turbocharger, and enginedriven compressor. Superchargers and turbochargers are installed on reciprocating engines to permit better performance at high altitude by increasing the quantity and pressure of the air in the induction system. Some of the air produced by each of these can be routed into the cabin to pressurize it.

A supercharger is mechanically driven by the engine. Despite engine performance increases due to higher induction system pressure, some of the engine output is utilized by the supercharger. Furthermore, superchargers have limited capability to increase engine performance. If supplying both the intake and the cabin with air, the engine performance ceiling is lower than if the aircraft were not pressurized. Superchargers must be located upstream of the fuel delivery to be used for pressurization. They are found on older reciprocating engine aircraft, including those with radial engines.

Turbochargers, sometimes known as turbosuperchargers, are driven by engine exhaust gases. They are the most common source of pressurization on modern reciprocating engine aircraft. The turbocharger impeller shaft extends through the bearing housing to support a compression impeller in a separate housing. By using some of the turbocharger compressed air for cabin pressurization, less is available for the intake charge, resulting in lower overall engine performance. Nonetheless, the otherwise wasted exhaust gases are put to work in the turbocharger compressor, enabling high altitude flight with the benefits of low drag and weather avoidance in relative comfort and without the use of supplemental oxygen.

Both superchargers and turbochargers are oil lubricated. The supercharger is part of the fuel intake system and the turbocharger is part of the exhaust system. As such, there is a risk of contamination of cabin air from oil, fuel, or exhaust fumes should a malfunction occur, a shortcoming of these pressurization sources. 

A third source of air for pressurizing the cabin in reciprocating aircraft is an engine driven compressor. Either belt driven or gear driven by the accessory drive, an independent, dedicated compressor for pressurization avoids some of the potential contamination issues of superchargers and turbochargers. The compressor device does, however, add significant weight. It also consumes engine output since it is engine driven. 

The roots blower is used on older, large reciprocating engine aircraft. The two lobes in this compressor do not touch each other or the compressor housing. As they rotate, air enters the space between the lobes and is compressed and delivered to the cabin for pressurization. Independent engine-driven centrifugal compressors can also be found on reciprocating engine aircraft.  A variable ratio gear drive system is used to maintain a constant rate of airflow during changes of engine rpm.

Near maximum operating altitude, the performance of any reciprocating engine and the pressurization compressor suffer. This is due to the reduced pressure of the air at altitude that supplies the intake of each. The result is difficulty in maintaining a sufficient volume of air to the engine intake to produce power, as well as to allow enough air to the fuselage for pressurization. These are the limiting factors for determining the design ceiling of most reciprocating aircraft, which typically does not exceed 25,000 feet. Turbine engine aircraft overcome these shortcomings, permitting them to fly at much higher altitudes.

Turbine Engine Aircraft 

The main principle of operation of a turbine engine involves the compression of large amounts of air to be mixed with fuel and burned. Bleed air from the compressor section of the engine is relatively free of contaminants. As such, it is a great source of air for cabin pressurization. However, the volume of air for engine power production is reduced. The amount of air bled off for pressurization compared to the overall amount of air compressed for combustion is relatively small but should be minimized. Modern large-cabin turbofan engine aircraft contain recirculation fans to reuse up to 50 percent of the air in the cabin, maintaining high engine output.

There are different ways hot, high-pressure bleed air can be exploited. Smaller turbine aircraft, or sections of a large aircraft, may make use of a jet pump flow multiplier. With this device, bleed air is tapped off of the turbine engine’s compressor section. It is ejected into a venturi jet pump mounted in air ducting that has one end open to the ambient air and the other end directed into the compartment to be pressurized. Due to the low pressure established in the venturi by the bleed air flow, air is drawn in from outside the aircraft. It mixes with the bleed air and is delivered to the pressure vessel to pressurize it. An advantage of this type of pressurization is the lack of moving parts. A disadvantage is only a relatively small volume of space can be pressurized in this manner.

Another method of pressurizing an aircraft using turbine engine compressor bleed air is to have the bleed air drive a separate compressor that has an ambient air intake. A turbine turned by bleed air rotates a compressor impellor mounted on the same shaft. Outside air is drawn in and compressed. It is mixed with the bleed air outflow from the turbine and is sent to the pressure vessel. Turboprop aircraft often use this device, known as a turbocompressor.

The most common method of pressurizing turbine-powered aircraft is with an air cycle air conditioning and pressurization system. Bleed air is used, and through an elaborate system including heat exchangers, a compressor, and an expansion turbine, cabin pressurization and the temperature of the pressurizing air are precisely controlled.

Control of Cabin Pressure 

Pressurization Modes 

Aircraft cabin pressurization can be controlled via two different modes of operation. The first is the isobaric mode, which works to maintain cabin altitude at a single pressure despite the changing altitude of the aircraft. For example, the flight crew may select to maintain a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet (10.92 psi). In the isobaric mode, the cabin pressure is established at the 8,000-foot level and remains at this level, even as the altitude of the aircraft fluctuates.

The second mode of pressurization control is the constant differential mode, which controls cabin pressure to maintain a constant pressure difference between the air pressure inside the cabin and the ambient air pressure, regardless of aircraft altitude changes. The constant differential mode pressure differential is lower than the maximum differential pressure for which the airframe is designed, keeping the integrity of the pressure vessel intact.

When in isobaric mode, the pressurization system maintains the cabin altitude selected by the crew. This is the condition for normal operations. But when the aircraft climbs beyond a certain altitude, maintaining the selected cabin altitude may result in a differential pressure above that for which the airframe was designed. In this case, the mode of pressurization automatically switches from isobaric to constant differential mode. This occurs before the cabin’s max differential pressure limit is reached. A constant differential pressure is then maintained, regardless of the selected cabin altitude.

In addition to the modes of operation described above, the rate of change of the cabin pressure, also known as the cabin rate of climb or descent, is also controlled. This can be done automatically or manually by the flight crew. Typical rates of change for cabin pressure are 300 to 500 fpm. Also, note that modes of pressurization may also refer to automatic versus standby versus manual operation of the pressurization system.

Cabin Pressure Controller 

The cabin pressure controller is the device used to control the cabin air pressure. Older aircraft use strictly pneumatic means for controlling cabin pressure. Selections for the desired cabin altitude, rate of cabin altitude change, and barometric pressure setting are all made directly to the pressure controller from pressurization panel in the cockpit.

Adjustments and settings on the pressure controller are the control input parameters for the cabin pressure regulator. The regulator controls the position of the outflow valve(s) normally located at the rear of the aircraft pressure vessel. Valve position determines the pressure level in the cabin.

Modern aircraft often combine pneumatic, electric, and electronic control of pressurization. Cabin altitude, cabin rate of change, and barometric setting are made on the cabin pressure selector of the pressurization panel in the cockpit. Electric signals are sent from the selector to the cabin pressure controller, which functions as the pressure regulator. It is remotely located out of sight near the cockpit but inside the pressurized portion of the aircraft. The signals are converted from electric to digital and are used by the controller. Cabin pressure and ambient pressure are also input to the controller, as well as other inputs. 

Using this information, the controller, which is essentially a computer, supplies pressurization logic for various stages of a flight. On many small transport and business jets, the controller’s electric output signal drives a torque motor in the primary outflow valve. This modulates pneumatic airflow through the valve, which positions the valve to maintain the pressurization schedule. 

On many transport category aircraft, two cabin pressure controllers, or a single controller with redundant circuitry, are used. Located in the electronics equipment bay, they receive electric input from the panel selector, as well as ambient and cabin pressure input. Flight altitude and landing field altitude information are often the crew selection choices on the pressurization control panel. Cabin altitude, rate of climb, and barometric setting are automatic through built-in logic and communication with the ADC and the flight management system (FMS). The controllers process the information and send electric signals to motors that directly position the outflow valve(s).

Modern pressurization control is fully automatic once variable selections are made on the pressurization control panel if, in fact, there are any to be made. Entering or selecting a flight plan into the FMS of some aircraft automatically supplies the pressurization controller with the parameters needed to establish the pressurization schedule for the entire flight. No other input is needed from the crew.

All pressurization systems contain a manual mode that can override automatic control. This can be used in flight or on the ground during maintenance. The operator selects the manual mode on the pressurization control panel. A separate switch is used to position the outflow valve open or closed to control cabin pressure. 

Cabin Air Pressure Regulator and Outflow Valve 

Controlling cabin pressurization is accomplished through regulating the amount of air that flows out of the cabin. A cabin outflow valve opens, closes, or modulates to establish the amount of air pressure maintained in the cabin. Some outflow valves contain the pressure regulating and the valve mechanism in a single unit. They operate pneumatically in response to the settings on the cockpit pressurization panel that influence the balance between cabin and ambient air pressure.  

Pneumatic operation of outflow valves is common. It is simple, reliable, and eliminates the need to convert air pressure operating variables into some other form. Diaphragms, springs, metered orifices, jet pumps, bellows, and poppet valves are used to sense and manipulate cabin and ambient air pressures to correctly position the outflow valve without the use of electricity. Outflow valves that combine the use of electricity with pneumatic operation have all-pneumatic standby and manual modes, as shown in Figure.

The pressure regulating mechanism can also be found as a separate unit. Many air transport category aircraft have an outflow valve that operates electrically, using signals sent from a remotely located cabin air pressure controller that acts as the pressure regulator. The controller positions the valve(s) to achieve the settings on the cockpit pressurization panel selectors according to predetermined pressurization schedules. Signals are sent to electric motors to move the valve as needed. On transports, often AC motors are used with a redundant DC motor for standby or manual operations.

Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve Operation 

Aircraft pressurization systems incorporate various features to limit human and structural damage should the system malfunction or become inoperative. A means for preventing overpressurization is incorporated to ensure the structural integrity of the aircraft if control of the pressurization system is lost. A cabin air safety valve is a pressure relief valve set to open at a predetermined pressure differential. It allows air to flow from the cabin to prevent internal pressure from exceeding design limitations. Figure shows cabin air pressure safety valves on a large transport category aircraft. On most aircraft, safety valves are set to open between 8 and 10 psid.

Pressurization safety valves are used to prevent the over pressurization of the aircraft cabin. They open at a preset differential pressure and allow air to flow out of the cabin. Wide-body transport category aircraft cabins may have more than one cabin pressurization safety valve. 

Some outflow valves incorporate the safety valve function into their design. This is common on some corporate jets when two outflow valves are used. One outflow valve operates as the primary and the other as a secondary. Both contain a pilot valve that opens when the pressure differential increases to a preset value. This, in turn, opens the outflow valve(s) to prevent further pressurization.

Cabin altitude limiters are also used. These close the outflow valves when the pressure in the cabin drops well below the normal cabin altitude range, preventing a further increase in cabin altitude. Some limiter functions are built into the outflow valve(s). An example of this can be seen in Figure. Other limiters are independent bellows units that send input to the outflow valve or are part of the cabin pressurization controller logic.

A negative pressure relief valve is included on pressurized aircraft to ensure that air pressure outside the aircraft does not exceed cabin air pressure. The spring-loaded relief valve opens inward to allow ambient air to enter the cabin when this situation arises. Too much negative pressure can cause difficulty when opening the cabin door. If high enough, it could cause structural damage since the pressure vessel is designed for cabin pressure to be greater than ambient. 

Some aircraft are equipped with pressurization dump valves. These essentially are safety valves that are operated automatically or manually by a switch in the cockpit. They are used to quickly remove air and air pressure from the cabin, usually in an abnormal, maintenance, or emergency situation. 

Incorporation of an emergency pressurization mode is found on some aircraft. A valve opens when the air conditioning packs fail or emergency pressurization is selected from the cockpit. It directs a mixture of bleed air and ram air into the cabin. This combines with fully closed outflow valves to preserve some pressurization in the aircraft.

Pressurization Gauges 

While all pressurization systems differ slightly, usually three cockpit indications, in concert with various warning lights and alerts, advise the crew of pressurization variables. They are the cabin altimeter, the cabin rate of climb or vertical speed indicator, and the cabin differential pressure indicator. These can be separate gauges or combined into one or two gauges. All are typically located on the pressurization panel, although sometimes they are elsewhere on the instrument panel. Outflow valve position indicator(s) are also common. On modern aircraft equipped with digital aircraft monitoring systems with LCD displays, such as Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) or Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM), the pressurization panel may contain no gauges. The environmental control system (ECS) page of the monitoring system is selected to display similar information. Increased use of automatic redundancy and advanced operating logic simplifies operation of the pressurization system. It is almost completely automatic. The cabin pressurization panel remains in the cockpit primarily for manual control. 

Pressurization Operation 

The normal mode of operation for most pressurization control systems is the automatic mode. A standby mode can also be selected. This also provides automatic control of pressurization, usually with different inputs, a standby controller, or standby outflow valve operation. A manual mode is available should the automatic and standby modes fail. This allows the crew to directly position the outflow valve through pneumatic or electric control, depending on the system.

Coordination of all pressurization components during various flight segments is essential. A weight-on-wheels (WOW) switch attached to the landing gear and a throttle position switch are integral parts of many pressurization control systems. During ground operations and prior to takeoff, the WOW switch typically controls the position of the pressurization safety valve, which is held in the open position until the aircraft takes off. In an advanced system, the WOW switch may give input to the pressurization controller, which in turn controls the positions and operation of all pressurization components. In other systems, the WOW switch may directly control the safety valve or a pneumatic source valve that causes the safety valve to be held open until the source is cut at takeoff when the WOW switch opens.

Throttle position switches can be used to cause a smooth transition from an unpressurized cabin to a pressurized cabin. A partial closing of the outflow valve(s) when the WOW switch is closed (on the ground) and the throttles are advanced gradually initiates pressurization during rollout. At takeoff, the rate of climb and the pressurization schedule require the outflow valve(s) to fully close. Passengers do not experience a harsh sensation from the fully closed valves because the cabin has already begun to pressurize slightly. 

Once in flight, the pressurization controller automatically controls the sequence of operation of the pressurization components until the aircraft lands. When the WOW switch closes again at landing, it opens the safety valve(s) and, in some aircraft, the outflow valve(s) makes pressurizing impossible on the ground in the automatic pressurization mode. Maintenance testing of the system is done in manual mode. This allows the technician to control the position of all valves from the cockpit panel. 

Air Distribution 

Distribution of cabin air on pressurized aircraft is managed with a system of air ducts leading from the pressurization source into and throughout the cabin. Typically, air is ducted to and released from ceiling vents, where it circulates and flows out floor-level vents. The air then flows aft through the baggage compartments and under the floor area. It exits the pressure vessel through the outflow valve(s) mounted low, on, or near the aft pressure bulkhead. The flow of air is nearly imperceptible. Ducting is hidden below the cabin floor and behind walls and ceiling panels depending on the aircraft and system design. Valves to select pressurization air source, ventilating air, temperature trim air, as well as in line fans and jet pumps to increase flow in certain areas of the cabin, are all components of the air distribution system. Temperature sensors, overheat switches, and check valves are also common.

On turbine-powered aircraft, temperature-controlled air from the air conditioning system is the air that is used to pressurize the cabin. The final regulation of the temperature of that air is sometimes considered part of the distribution system. Mixing air-conditioned air with bleed air in a duct or a mixing chamber allows the crew to select the exact temperature desired for the cabin. The valve for mixing is controlled in the cockpit or cabin by a temperature selector. Centralized manifolds from which air can be distributed are common.

Large aircraft may be divided into zones for air distribution. Each zone has its own temperature selector and associated valve to mix conditioned and bleed air so that each zone can be maintain at a temperature independent of the others.

The air distribution system on most aircraft makes provisions for ducting and circulating cooling air to electronics equipment bays. It also contains a gasper air system. This is air ducted from the cold air manifold or duct to an overhead adjustable delivery nozzle at each passenger station. An inline fan controlled from the cockpit supplies a steady stream of gasper air that can be regulated or shut off with the delivery nozzle(s).

When an aircraft is on the ground, operating the engines or the APU to provide air for air conditioning is expensive. It increases the time in service of these expensive components and expedites expensive mandatory overhauls that are performed at specified time intervals. Most high-performance, medium size, and larger turbine-powered aircraft are fitted with a receptacle in the air distribution system. To this a ground source of conditioned air can be connected via a ducting hose. The cabin can be heated or cooled through the aircraft’s air distribution ducting using air from the ground source. This limits the operating time on the engines and APU. Once prefight checks and passenger boarding are completed, the ducting hose can be disconnected for taxi and flight. A check valve is used to prevent ground source air from flowing upstream into the air conditioning system.

Cabin Pressurization Troubleshooting 

While pressurization systems on different aircraft operate similarly with similar components, it cannot be assumed that they are the same. Even those systems constructed by a single manufacturer likely have differences when installed on different aircraft. It is important to check the aircraft manufacture’s service information when troubleshooting the pressurization system. A fault, such as failure to pressurize or failure to maintain pressurization, can have many different causes. Adherence to the steps in a manufacturer’s troubleshooting procedures is highly recommended to sequentially evaluate possible causes. Pressurization system test kits are available, or the aircraft can be pressurized by its normal sources during troubleshooting. A test flight may be required after maintenance.